Stanford University School of Medicine and the Predecessor Schools: An Historical Perspective
Part III. Founding of First Medical School and Successions 1858-

The foregoing summary of the disappointing national effort to reform medical education nationally will serve as background for the following account of the evolution of medical standards at the Medical College of the Pacific.

Under the policy adopted originally by Elias Cooper et al when the Medical Department of the University of the Pacific was founded in 1859, responsibility for taking the minutes at Faculty meetings was assigned to the Dean. In the early days, when Dean Cole kept the minutes, they were brief, often scarcely legible, and frequently on mere scraps of paper. As a result, information regarding Faculty deliberations and curricular matters during his era is scanty. In contrast, the minutes beginning in 1870, written in the fine hand of young Dean Henry Gibbons, Jr., are clear and concise. He meticulously recorded in laconic style an impressive succession of astute actions that portray the Cooper loyalists who revived the school in 1870 as experienced and committed professionals.

The Annual Session for 1872, extending over the five months' period from June 3rd to November 3rd, was the first Session of the newly established Medical College of the Pacific (MCP). The only major change in the requirements for graduation in the Cooper schools between 1859 and 1872 was an increase in the duration of the Annual Course of Medical Lectures from four months to five months, beginning with the Session for 1870. Otherwise the following requirements for graduation in 1872 were the same as when the school opened in 1859:^[1][2]

Although requirements for graduation had changed little since 1859, the range of subjects taught in the Annual Course of Lectures was increased significantly upon revival of the school in 1870. Thereafter, the Lectures included new subjects related to the developing medical sciences and clinical specialties. This important trend is illustrated by the following list of subjects taught in 1872:^[3]

• Principles and Practice of Medicine
• Clinical Medicine and Diagnosis
• Surgery and Surgical Anatomy
• Clinical and Operative Surgery
• Pathology (with practical illustrations)
• Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children
• Clinical Ophthalmology and Otology
• Materia Medica and Therapeutics
• Hygiene and Insanity
• Physical Diagnosis (Auscultation, Percussion, etc.)

• Histology and Diseases of the Nervous System
• Descriptive and Microscopic Anatomy
• Theoretical and Practical Physiology
• Ophthalmology and Otology;
• Inorganic and Organic Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry and Toxicology;

The Annual Lecture Course was now beginning to reflect the contributions of Pasteur, Lister, Koch and other European investigators, to whom we have previously referred. Similarly, new clinical specialties were being introduced into the curriculum and reinforced by clinical instruction in the school's affiliated hospitals and clinics. The modern era of medical education and practice was beginning to emerge.

Prior to suspension of the Medical Department of the University of the Pacific in 1864, a Preliminary Course of only one month duration was provided. At the Faculty meeting on 15 December 1870, shortly after successful completion of the first Session of the revived Medical Department, it was decided to augment the curriculum by lengthening the Preliminary Course of Lectures from one to four months. Attendance was optional and there was no examination or grade. As an inducement to attend the Course, there was no charge to the students who matriculated for the Regular (or Annual) Course.

For example, in 1872 the Preliminary Lecture Course was given over a four month period from February to May, and was followed by the five month Regular Course from June to November. Here is the description of the Preliminary Course from the Annual Announcement for 1872:^[4][5]

The Preliminary Lecture Course (renamed "Intermediate Course" in 1878), required considerable additional unrequited effort by the Faculty. For those students who voluntarily took the Course, it had the effect of extending the annual term of instruction to nine months. This substantial offering by the Faculty was evidence of their determination to improve the educational program, but they were not yet prepared to adopt a three-year graded curriculum.

We learn from the minutes of 28 June 1870 that Dr. Gibbons, Sr., was directed to secure hospital privileges for teaching purposes at the San Francisco City and County Hospital. The minutes of 1 April 1871 record that equal clinical privileges with the Toland School had now been granted at the Hospital. The County Hospital was the most important clinical teaching facility in the city and so promptly to obtain equal access with the Toland School, which might have shut them out, was a major coup for the revived Cooper school.

As an additional resource for clinical teaching, the Faculty decided on 9 July 1870 to establish a Free Public Clinic (to be located at the University College Building) in accordance with the following generous plan:^[6]

The following excerpt from the Annual Announcement for the Session of 1872 outlines the overall provisions for Clinical Instruction made by the Faculty.^[7]

In 1877 the U. S. Marine Hospital with 120 beds and 1000 patients annually, and St. Mary's Hospital were listed as also available for clinical teaching.^[8]

It can be seen from the preceding review that the educational program of the MCP in 1872 was considerably improved over that in 1859, but the curriculum (like that in most other American medical colleges) was still quite deficient due to antiquated Requirements for Graduation.

In 1882 a formal program of postdoctoral training, available to a limited number of students, was announced.^[9]

This modest offering represents the first of a considerable number of internships and residency positions later to be made available by the hospitals of San Francisco.

Following the original meeting of the Provisional Association of American Medical Colleges in May 1876, to which we have referred, Dr. Biddle, President of the Association, recommended to all medical colleges that they increase their graduation standards by requiring completion of three identical Annual Lecture Courses instead of the usual two (each Course of five months duration).

President Biddle's recommendation was discussed by the MCP Faculty on 15 March 1877 and "the Dean was instructed to reply to the Association of American Medical Colleges that our College was ready to accept the plan proposed if it be accepted by the other school in this city and by the schools throughout the country; and that we favor an additional regulation, requiring that every student, before being admitted to lectures, be subjected to a rigorous examination." This was a perfectly safe position for the Faculty to take because most of the other medical schools in the country would certainly not follow the Association's recommendation.

As will be further discussed below, in 1879 the MCP finally adopted Dr. Biddle's proposal for three identical Annual Lecture Courses as the first step in a major overhaul of the curriculum.

Meanwhile an exasperated Dr. Gibbons, Sr., in 1877 again entered the lists in defense of contemporary American medical education as he knew and cherished it. His description of student life at the Medical College of the Pacific provides a rare glimpse of their academic schedule.^[10]

In spite of his apparent satisfaction with the state of the art in California, Professor Gibbons and his MCP colleagues at about this time began seriously to consider major curricular reform. The Faculty's final decision to adopt a more advanced standard of education was announced one year later on 17 April 1878 at the Annual meeting of the California State Medical Society in San Jose. The announcement was included in the Report of the Society's Committee on Medical Education, chaired by Dr. H. S. Orme of Los Angeles. In his Report, Dr. Orme lamented the parlous state of American medical education and asked a rhetorical question:^[11]

Dr. Orme was premature in announcing in 1878 that MCP had "formally established a three year's graded curriculum." Actually the MCP did not phase in the graded curriculum until the Session for 1881. Meanwhile only intermediate steps were taken. In 1879 Requirements for Graduation for the first time included attendance at three identical annual lecture courses (each of five months' duration), instead of two identical courses as formerly mandated. The rationale for this change, which had been recommended in 1876 by Dr. Biddle and the Association of American Medical Colleges, was outlined in the Annual Announcement of MCP for 1879, as follows:^[12]

Another significant change in graduation requirements in 1879 was to abolish the requirement that: "The candidate must have studied medicine for three years (the terms of attending Lectures included) under the direction of a respectable practitioner." This timely alteration in graduation requirements eliminated the apprenticeship from the medical school curriculum.

The next important step in curricular reform was the adoption in 1881 of the graduation requirement that the student must have completed a graded sequence of three Annual Lecture Courses (also known as the "Three Course Plan of Medical Education"), instead of the three identical Annual Courses previously required. The details of the Three Course Plan were spelled out in the Announcement for 1881:^[13]

The last academic reform to be introduced was the establishment of a formal requirement for matriculation (that is, for admission to the school.) It is interesting to note that no educational or other requirement for Matriculation in the Medical Department of University of the Pacific or its successor schools was specified in the Annual Announcements from 1859 through 1883, nor was the applicant requested to submit any information regarding prior education or training.^[14]

The first specification of an admission requirement appears in the Annual Announcement of Cooper Medical College for 1884 as follows:^[15]

The crux of the matter here is that, beginning in 1884 , a High School education was sufficient preparation for admission but, prior to that date, there were no formal admission requirements and standards were undoubtedly even lower.

With adoption of the Three Course Plan (Three Year Graded Curriculum) in 1881, the Medical College of the Pacific joined Harvard, Pennsylvania and other progressive schools in the vanguard of curricular reform in American medical education.

The length of time required to obtain the M. D. degree was not increased. It remained at three years, but the content of the curriculum was immensely improved.

The combination of Intermediate Lecture and Regular Lecture Programs resulted in a school year of eight or nine months.

The apprenticeship, an outmoded experience that varied widely in quality depending upon the preceptor, was eliminated.

Minimum educational requirements for matriculation were finally established in 1884. These allowed admission on the basis of a High School diploma. Higher admission standards remained one of the major needs in medical education generally, but continued to be widely resisted nationally because higher standards meant fewer students eligible for admission and decreased income for the Professors.

Fees for the Three Course Plan

From 1859 through 1862 Lecture Fees were paid by students directly to individual Professors. From 1863 through 1878 a set charge of $ 130 was paid directly to the School for each Annual Lecture Course. When the three-year program was introduced in 1879, the Faculty decided to provide the lengthened program at no additional expense to the student. The cost of the two-year program was simply prorated over three years as follows:^[16]

The net result of the new arrangement was to establish an overall tuition of $315 for three years of medical education.

Incidentally, the Medical Department of the University of California adopted essentially the same rate of tuition.^[17]

The cost of operating the Medical College of the Pacific is indicated by the following excerpts from financial records of the College:^[18]

*On 24 July 1872 It was decided to allocate $ 100 to each of the following seven Professors (Bowie, Morse, Gibbons, Sr., Gibbons. Jr., Lane, Cushing and Ellinwood; and to allocate $ 250 to Professor Bentley (Microscopic Anatomy and Pathology) and $ 200 to Professor Price (Chemistry and Toxicology). Total allocation: $ 1150.

The year of 1876 was more prosperous than the earlier ones, as is apparent from the following financial report:^[19]

*On 30 October 1876, another dividend for the Professors was declared. The Dean was directed to disburse $ 200 for each of the past two years to each of the active Professors, making a total of $ 3400. This sum was included among the Expenditures.

The above data show that the Faculty of MCP received only nominal compensation. Further evidence of the fine spirit of the Faculty and their dedication to the school is seen in the following editorial comment in the PMSJ in the fall of 1882:^[20]

We now have some idea of the annual income and expenditures of the Medical College of the Pacific. We also know that the only source of College income was student tuition of $ 315, paid at the rate of about $ 150 per year per student from 1870 to 1878 (when the curriculum was of two years' duration) and at an annual rate of about $ 100 from 1879 to 1882 (when the curriculum was extended to three years). Utilizing these figures, we can make a rough estimate of the annual tuition income to the College by tabulating annual MCP matriculants from 1870 to 1882: Please note that the number of graduates was only seven in 1880, less than half the number in the previous two years. Dr. Gibbons pointed out that this was due to increasing the length of the course of instruction from two to three years in 1879.^[21][22][23]

* Annual graduates from the Medical Department of the University of California are listed for comparison.^[24]
** M. D. degree granted by Cooper Medical College.

The twelve Professors comprising the Faculty during the first Session of the revived Medical Department in 1870 are listed in the previous chapter. With this roster as a baseline, we will document significant Faculty appointments and other relevant matters from 1870 through 1882 by referring to Faculty minutes which are dated for convenient reference.^[25][26][27]

Dr. Clinton Cushing (M. D., Rush Medical College, 1865) was appointed Professor of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children, replacing Dr. R. Beverly Cole. Dr. Cushing left the Faculty in 1873 and returned as Professor of Gynecology in 1881.

Dr. William A. Douglass (M. D., National Medical College, District of Columbia, 1850), was appointed Demonstrator of Anatomy. Dr. Douglass's superior abilities as an anatomist, surgeon and teacher were recognized by his rapid advancement to full professorial status through promotion to Adjunct Professor of Anatomy on 29 May 1874, and finally, on 19 April 1875, to the newly-established post of Professor of Clinical Surgery. After 1889 the name of Dr. Douglass no longer appears on the Faculty Roster of Cooper Medical College, and the Official Register of Physicians and Surgeons in California for 1891 lists him among the deceased.

Adolph Barkan giving a demonstration in ophthalmology

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Dr. Adolph Barkan (1845-1935) was appointed Professor of Ophthalmology and Otology, replacing Dr. W. F. Smith. Dr. Barkan, a native of Hungary, received his M. D. degree from the University of Vienna in 1866. After his graduation at Vienna, he was for one year (1867) an assistant to the chair of Physiology at the University of Graz.

Adolph Barkan (1845-1935)

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He then returned to the University of Vienna in 1868 where he was for a year "the youngest assistant" in the Ophthalmic Clinic of Professor von Jaeger in 1868. Following a year in Baltimore as resident physician to the Maryland Eye and Ear Infirmary he moved to San Francisco in 1869 where he entered medical practice. He was later described by Dr. Rixford as a brilliant and fascinating teacher, admired by faculty and an inspiration to students.^[28]

Dr. Jos. H. Wythe, graduate of Philadelphia College of Medicine in 1850, was appointed to a newly established chair as Professor of Microscopy and Biology. Dr. Wythe was a man of wide experience and many talents. During the Civil War he was an army surgeon and chaplain. In private life he was an educator, author, ordained Methodist minister, able surgeon and accomplished microscopist. He published the first complete American text on microscopy in 1852.

Dr. Wythe served as president of the Willamette University, a Methodist College in Salem, Oregon, and was a leader in founding at that institution Oregon's first medical school in 1867. When the ensuing faculty strife was not to his liking, he left the project to take up permanent residence in the Bay Area where, in addition to teaching and research in microscopy at the Medical College of the Pacific, he concurrently practiced medicine and surgery and occupied the pulpit of the Powell Street Methodist Church, attending to all the duties of pastor. He also found time to give frequent lectures in the area, to make astronomical observations through a powerful telescope he installed in his back yard, and to write a number of reference books.^[29]

Dr. Henry Gibbons, Jr., resigned as Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics in order to replace Dr. Clinton Cushing as Professor of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children (a position held by Dr. Gibbons until his death in 1911).

Dr. J. R. Prevost was appointed Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics, replacing Dr. Henry Gibbons, Jr. In 1876, three years after his appointment to the Faculty, Dr. Prevost died unexpectedly. He was in the prime of life, being only 32 years of age at the time. He graduated from Toland Medical College in 1866 and shortly after married a daughter of Dr. John F. Morse. In 1867 he entered into practice in San Francisco in conjunction with Dr. Morse. Four months prior to the death of Dr. Prevost from pneumonia, he lost his wife by the same disease. Four little ones were left without their parents.^[30]

Dr. W. T. Wythe, medical graduate of Willamette University, Oregon, in 1868 and the University of Pennsylvania in 1873, was appointed Lecturer on Physical Diagnosis.

This was the last Faculty meeting attended by Dr. Lane before he sailed for Europe in July 1874. There he spent six months in Great Britain, six months in France and 10 months in Germany devoted to intensive study of surgery and medical education at major centers. He returned to the United States in September 1876 in time to deliver the Valedictory Address at the Commencement Exercises of the Medical College of the Pacific on 2 November 1876. On that occasion he gave an extensive account of his experiences abroad, to which we shall later refer.

Dr. Edwin Bentley, Professor of Descriptive and Microscopic Anatomy and Pathology since 1870, was given the additional duty of serving as Acting Professor of Surgery in the absence of Dr. Lane. At the meeting of 31 October 1874 it was announced that he would also act as locum tenens in charge of Dr. Lane's practice.

Dr. John F. Morse died on this date. Prior to his death, failing health had forced him to return to San Francisco from Hawaii where a planned voyage to Australia was interrupted because of his worsening condition. One of the most respected of the pioneer physicians, thousands attended his funeral, said to have been the largest ever seen in California. It was through the earnest labors of Professor Morse that the College Dispensary became a permanency. Upon his death it was named the Morse Dispensary in his honor.

Among the surviving children was his brilliant son, John F. Morse, Jr., who graduated from the Medical College of the Pacific in 1878. After study abroad, he returned in 1883 and became associated in practice with Dr. William A. Douglass, Professor of Clinical Surgery whom he assisted as visiting surgeon to the City and County Hospital. In 1883 Dr. Morse joined the Cooper Medical College Faculty as Adjunct to the Chair of Anatomy, but in 1884 his title was changed to Adjunct to the Chair of Clinical Surgery. When Professor Douglass became emeritus in 1889, Dr. Morse was named to the chair as Professor of Clinical Surgery.^[31][32][33]

Dr. William T. Wenzell was appointed Professor of Chemistry and Toxicology to replace Professor Price due to the latter's extended absence from San Francisco.

Adjunct Professor of Anatomy William A. Douglass was elected to fill the newly-established post of Professor of Clinical Surgery.

Dr. W. T. Wythe was appointed to fill the position of Adjunct Professor of Anatomy vacated by Dr. Douglass. In 1878, Dr. Wythe was advanced to rank of Professor of Anatomy. He died of an obscure, lingering illness on 26 June 1880 in his thirty-third year.

Dr. J. P. Whitney resigned his appointment as Emeritus Professor of the Institutes of Medicine. He had been originally appointed to the professorship in 1863. Now it was rumored that an anonymous "black mail" sheet, known as the San Francisco News Letter, was about to report that his claim to having received an M. D. degree from Jefferson Medical College in 1834 was false. The Faculty were upset by the accusation and deferred action on Dr. Whitney's resignation.^[34]

At the previous meeting Dr. Whitney had submitted his resignation. At this meeting, it was decided to accept it without comment. The Faculty also discussed a letter from Dr. Miller, ad eundem graduate in 1873, who protested that his diploma bore the signature of the discredited Dr. Whitney. Under instruction by the Faculty, the Dean got in touch with Dr. Miller immediately and somehow placated him for we find no further reference to the issue in subsequent minutes.

Dr. James P. Whitney (1815-1880) was born in Oswego Country, New York. After practicing about eighteen years in the East he joined the westward migration and probably arrived in San Francisco in 1853. When he began practice in San Francisco he let it be known among the profession that he had received an M. D. degree from Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia in 1834. He soon acquired a busy general and obstetrical practice and aligned himself with the various evanescent medical societies that flourished and faded in the 1850's and 60's. He was active in the Pathological Society, the Second San Francisco Medical Society, the Medico-Chirurgical Association, and the State Medical Society. Dr. Whitney's long and constructive participation in medical organizations was rewarded in 1868 by his election as the first president of the Third San Francisco Medical Society.

In 1875 Dr. Whitney was sixty years of age, with forty years behind him as a respected practitioner, twenty-two of them in San Francisco where he had also been a professor in the Medical Department of the University of the Pacific and the Medical College of the Pacific; a Trustees of Toland Medical College; and a valued member of the Board of Health. Throughout these years of medical practice, teaching and public service, he had been haunted by a dark secret regarding the authenticity of his medical degree. He knew that it would destroy his hard-won reputation if disclosed.^[35]

In spite of Dr. Whitney's impeccable professional record and high standing in the medical community, the News Letter published on 10 July 1875 included his name on a list of over 200 practitioners in San Francisco who were alleged to be without legitimate M. D. degrees. The News Letter demanded that these practitioners produce their medical diplomas or be disbarred from practice. In the same issue there were listed the names of some 230 "regular" physicians said to be holding bona fide degrees. The implication was that almost half the medical practitioners in San Francisco were "Quacks."

As a result of the News Letter's allegations, the State Medical Society set up a Screening Committee chaired by Dr. Logan to examine the credentials of its members.^[36]

The Screening Committee noted that when the editors of the Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal compiled the first Medical Registry in the State of California in 1858, Dr. Whitney provided them with the information that he had received an M. D. degree from Jefferson Medical College in 1834. He also certified when signing the Constitution of the State Medical Society that he was a graduate of Jefferson in 1834.^[37][38]

On investigation, the Screening Committee of the State Medical Society found that Dr. Whitney had never graduated from Jefferson or any other medical school. The Committee then decided to notify and grant a hearing to such members as Dr. Whitney with a view to giving them the Society's endorsement as practitioners of medicine if found qualified. Averse to having his qualifications to practice medicine subjected to a review of this nature, Dr. Whitney ignored the Committee's summons, withheld his dues, and considered himself no longer a member of the State Society.

In the following year, 1876, the Medical Practice Act was adopted by the State establishing a Board of Medical Examiners, and this body granted Dr. Whitney a license to practice. Nevertheless, the Board of Censors of the State Society demanded his formal expulsion from the Society because of the implied insult in his refusal to answer the summons of the Screening Committee in 1875. In spite of the strenuous efforts of Henry Gibbons to quash the matter, the Censors persisted in demanding Dr. Whitney's expulsion from the Society. The wretched issue was finally settled in 1877 by the Society's acceptance of Dr. Whitney's resignation, reluctantly penned by his own hand.^[39]

According to the official History of the San Francisco Medical Society, Dr. Whitney's son, James D. Whitney, was outraged at the Society's humiliation of his father and took matters into his owns hands:^[40]

Little is known of the remaining thirteen years of the life of Dr. J. P. Whitney, a man of studious bent who in his later career stood aloof from medical cliques and factional strife. He was exceptionally well-read and a devoted teacher. Considering the content of medical education in 1834, it is reasonable to believe that his lack of a diploma of that vintage was amply compensated by his assiduous study and long practical experience.

In an obituary published in the Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal at the time of Dr. Whitney's death in 1880, Dr. Gibbons, Sr., referred to him as "a man of uncommon power of thought and general intellectual capacity and a great reader with a very retentive memory. An original thinker and, as a student versed in all the literature of his profession, he had no superior on the Pacific Coast. His judgment and skill as a practitioner induced his confreres to call him frequently in consultation."^[41]

Nevertheless, Dr. Whitney could not pass the acid test, he could not prove the authenticity of the M. D. degree he claimed to hold, a not uncommon failing among pioneer physicians. Ironically, although his qualifications to practice were validated by the State Board of Medical Examiners, his long career was blighted by the harsh penalty exacted from him by the State Society, not for having no medical diploma, but for refusing to answer its summons. The quality of his mind and the standards of his medical practice were never in question. So ended another melancholy episode in the medical annals of early San Francisco.

The San Francisco News Letter of 10 July 1875 also blasted Professor Gibbons, Sr., and the Medical College of the Pacific:^[42]

There is more harsh criticism of Dr. Gibbons, Sr., and the Medical College in the News Letter but the above will serve as a sufficient example.

We have examined the claim that two of the graduates of the School (George H. Jackson of Woodland in 1871 and Jacob Allen of San Bernadino in 1872) had received M. D. degrees without full attendance on the lectures, and that they had "bought" their diplomas. We have obtained the following information on the subject from the Faculty Minutes and the Register of Students.

With respect to Mr. Jackson, the Register shows that he attended only three months of the five-month Annual Session of 1870. This appears to represent his total participation in the teaching program of the school. On 26 May 1871 the Faculty "decided to grant a degree to G. H. Jackson, he having passed a satisfactory examination." We assume that he had previously been engaged in apprenticeship or independent medical practice and that he was given credit for this experience in lieu of the statutory second Annual Session of lectures. As we recall, Elias Cooper obtained his medical degree from St. Louis University in 1851 after only one course of Annual Lectures, on similar grounds. However, as far as we can determine, Mr. Jackson completed considerably less than even one Annual Session and was nevertheless awarded a "regular" M. D. degree. (That is, the qualifier "ad eundem" was not appended to his M. D.) If this reading of the record is correct, we may fairly conclude that the standards applied in his case were lax, and criticism warranted. Of course, all the circumstances in the case are unknown. However, we have already learned that Dr. Gibbons, Sr., had a high regard for the educational value of medical practice, and thought it deserved more credit than it sometimes received.

In the case of Jacob Allen, we seem to have an example of the fullest expression of the Gibbons philosophy on the value of medical practice, i. e., the awarding of a regular M. D. degree to a candidate who attended no medical school at all. At least we can find no evidence in the Register or elsewhere that Jacob Allen matriculated in the Medical College of the Pacific or was present at the Annual Lecture Series. We find only two entries in the Faculty minutes pertaining to his candidacy for a medical degree. On 26 May 1871 it was decided that a degree should be granted to "Dr. J. Allen" upon payment of "fees for Matriculation, Course and Graduation, and if he passes an examination in the practical branches." Since the candidate was listed in the Faculty minutes as "Dr." J. Allen, it is assumed that he was already functioning in San Bernadino as a practicing physician, but without an M. D. - a familiar situation. The second and final entry in the minutes was on 3 October 1872: "Jacob Allen to have degree." At the Commencement Exercises on 4 November 1872 (which Jacob Allen did not attend), he was awarded a "regular" M. D. degree with nine other candidates. We can only suggest from the evidence available that Dr. Allen seems to have graduated without going to medical school. In less charitable terms, the Editor of the News Letter charged that "he had bought his diploma from the Gibbons institution without attending the necessary course of lectures." Again we are unable for lack of documentation to refute or confirm the anonymous editor's assertion. At the very least, the school's records now available regarding Dr. Allen are deficient.

We return now briefly to the issue of the sale of a Philadelphia diploma by Dr. Gibbons, Sr., to Dr. H. S. Baldwin. At the Fifth Annual Meeting of the California State Medical Society held in Sacramento on 21-22 April 1875, Dr. Thomas Logan was appointed chairman of a Committee to Inquire into the Rumor Regarding the Admission of Unqualified Members into the Society.^[43] This Committee investigated the medical degree of Dr. H. S. Baldwin and found it to be valid. The Committee further reported that charges to the contrary (in the News Letter) were unfounded.^[44] These findings exonerated Dr. Gibbons of the irresponsible accusation that he had conspired with Dr. Baldwin to obtain for him a bogus diploma from a Philadelphia source. This incident serves as a reminder that the mail-order sale of counterfeit medical diplomas was actually a thriving business in both America and Europe at the time, engendering much confusion and disrespect for the profession among the public.

The News Letter also included Beverly Cole, the Toland School, certain other of its faculty members, and the San Francisco Medical Society in its intemperate broadside. The anonymous editor's castigation of the medical schools, societies and profession for their failure to maintain standards and purge the profession of impostors evoked great indignation among the doctors. But there were abundant facts among the reckless charges, and the beneficial net result of the inflammatory News Letter was to spur needed reforms.

In retrospect, during the first five years following the revival of the Cooper school in 1870 there was a tendency to unduly liberalize the requirements for the M. D. degree as, for example, in the cases of Jackson and Allen. It was probably in direct response to the public airing of these cases, that the Faculty after 30 October 1976 adopted stricter procedures for evaluating the medical students.

The Faculty of the Medical College of the Pacific were badly shaken by the News Letter affair. As far as we know, Dr. Gibbons and the Medical College did not respond publicly or otherwise to the accusations, perhaps not wishing to dignify them with a rebuttal. Nor are we aware that the editor of the News Letter ever submitted proof to the Legislature of the sale of diplomas by the Medical College of the Pacific as he threatened to do. We found absolutely no evidence among the College records of such trafficking, except as inferred in the cases of Jackson and Allen. We do know that Professor A. J. Bowie, President of the Faculty, was deeply concerned about the charges of the sale of diplomas by the College and said that he would resign if the charges could not be denied.^[45] In the sequel, Professor Bowie did not resign and future events showed that from this time forward the College pressed resolutely ahead on the path of curricular reform.

Dr. L. L. Dorr, a graduate of Bellevue Hospital Medical College in 1866, was appointed as temporary Professor of Materia Medical and Therapeutics until the end of the Session of 1876, replacing Professor Prevost who died. On 9 May 1881 Dr. Dorr was formally elected as Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics.

Dr. R. H. Plummer, graduate of Toland Medical College in 1866, was appointed Clinical Teacher of Diseases of Women. On 21 August 1876 he was unanimously invited to fill the Chair of Theory and Practice of Medicine for the balance of the Session of 1876 on account of the illness of Dr. Gibbons, Sr. On 3 December 1880 he was appointed Lecturer on Anatomy. Finally, sometime in late 1882 or early 1883, Dr. Plummer completed his peripatetic service on the faculty and was appointed Professor of Anatomy. He was a man of ability and untiring energy, well-known for his service as Secretary of the State Board of Medical Examiners from 1879 to 1888.^[46]

Dr. Joseph Oakland Hirschfelder was born in Oakland, California, in 1854. He was the first child of white parents to be born in that city, a circumstance that led to the choice of "Oakland" as his middle name. He matriculated in the Medical Department of the University of the Pacific in 1871 when he was eighteen years of age. He was not only too young to be granted the M. D. in the following year, but he also upset the equilibrium of the Faculty by refusing to take the same lectures over again as required by the curriculum at the time. Instead he departed for Germany where he remained from 1872 to 1877, studying with renowned medical figures and in 1876 receiving a medical diploma from the University of Leipzig. Upon his return to San Francisco in 1877, after five years residence and study abroad, he was unanimously elected as Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics. When the Department of Clinical Medicine was established on 13 January 1881, he was appointed Professor of Clinical Medicine.^[47][48][49]

Dr. W. D. Johnston, graduate of the Medical Department of the University of the Pacific in 1871, was appointed Professor of Chemistry upon resignation of the incumbent, Dr. Wenzell.

29 May 1876

On motion of Professor Wenzell (Chemistry), seconded by Professor Barkan (Ophthalmology), the Faculty voted to admit women to the Medical College of the Pacific on equal terms with males. There was no debate. The time for action had come. The first woman to be admitted to the College was Alice Higgins. She was forty years of age, born in Massachusetts, and a resident of Anaheim, California. She matriculated in 1876 and graduated the following year on 6 November 1877.

In 1878, Anabel McG. Stuart of Santa Barbara was the second woman to graduate.

Emilie M. Lawson and Kate N. Post of San Francisco, and Mary Whitney of Minnesota graduated in 1879. In subsequent years, well into the next decade, there were up to several women graduates annually.

Class of 1899 Miss May McKinney; Miss Eliz. Keys; Miss Grace Sharp; Miss Nellie Morse; Miss Mary Harris; Miss Mariana Bertola; Mrs. Beatrice Hinkle; Mrs. Elizabeth Grotefend

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However, the palm for being the first medical school on the Pacific Coast to graduate a woman goes to the Medical Department of the University of California. Against his better judgment, Dean Cole allowed a 33 year-old former school teacher, Mrs. Lucy Maria Field Wanzer, to matriculate in the Medical Department in 1873. Actually he was legally obliged to accept her as a medical student because the University of California was, by law, a coeducational institution.

Dean Cole was an outspoken opponent of medical education for women and had many times referred to them as mentally and constitutionally unsuited for such arduous studies. In spite of his bias, Mrs. Wanzer's determination and brilliant performance led him temporarily to suspend his views in her case. She received her M. D. degree with the Class of 1876, and became the first woman graduate of the western schools.^[50][51]

At a Faculty Meeting on 1 February 1877, Dr. Lane moved that the Faculty recommend to the alumni of the College that they establish an Alumni Association of the Medical College of the Pacific. The motion was approved. A year and a half then passed before the subject was again raised, although there were doubtless consultations with key alumni in the meantime to enlist their support.

In the Faculty Meeting on 3 October 1878 it was decided to invite the alumni to meet at the College on 11 November. The timing was opportune, being a week following the Annual Commencement of the Medical College held on 5 November. At that Commencement the M. D. degree was conferred on twenty-six alumni, including one woman - much the largest class hitherto graduated on the Pacific Coast by either medical school.

It would appear from the available documents that a group of alumni probably met on 5 November 1878, the day of the Commencement, and drafted the Constitution and By-Laws of the Alumni Association of the Medical College of the Pacific . This draft was then approved at the first formal gathering of the alumni who met in the College Building on 11 November 1878 in response to the invitation of the Faculty.^[52]

The following account of this meeting was carried in the Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal for November 1878:^[53]

The Association then met annually at or about the time of the Commencement to elect officers and transact other business through 1881-1882 when the Medical Coll.

Dr. and Mrs. Lane boarded the Cunard Steamer, Algeria, at Jersey City on 18 July 1874. Nine days later, weary and sick from rough seas, they disembarked at the Irish seaport of Queenstown. From there they traveled to Dublin where Dr. Lane was warmly received by Stokes, Corrigan, Colles and other physicians whose names are still associated with their signal contributions to medicine.

After a most congenial visit among "the quick, impulsive and ready-witted Celts," he crossed over to the land of the dour Scots in September, stopping first in Glasgow. It was there that Joseph Lister, greatest of the English Quaker physicians and foremost British surgeon, established the principles of antiseptic surgery. Lister had by the time of Lane's European tour returned to the University of Edinburgh where he received his earlier training under Scotland's renowned Professor James Syme. In Edinburgh Lister continued the historic investigations that gave surgeons "the power to perform the majority of operations without occurrence of the inflammation which formerly hung like the sword of Damocles over every grave surgical procedure."

It was in Edinburgh that Lane visited Lister whom he described as "a quiet, retiring man, and free to communicate with us, and even to give us the recent improvements which he has made in his antiseptic formulae." In Lane's view at the time "much remains to be done to perfect the method of Lister, yet, in its present state, its excellencies are so great, that it has been introduced into the majority of the great hospitals of Europe." While visiting on Lister's hospital wards at the University of Edinburgh, Lane was conscious of witnessing, in the presence of its genius, the advent of a new era in surgery.^[60]

October of 1874 found Lane in London where he avidly attended the numerous public lectures made available there by notables in science and medicine. He was much impressed by the series of eighty-four lectures delivered by Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895). Doctor Huxley, a medical graduate of London University in 1845, was England's greatest student of natural history and the ablest interpreter and supporter of the evolutionary theories of Charles Darwin.

Lane climbed eleven flights of time-worn granite stairs to reach the natural history museum, laboratory and unpretentious lecture room of "the plain, simple and unostentatious Huxley who in every word, movement and act presented that modesty and want of display which always indicate and reveal the scholar. If we stop and hear one of his lectures, the qualities mentioned shine forth even more manifestly. Once having heard him, no one asks for further evidence of the universality of his knowledge in his department. . . I was happy to find, for once, a man who is not over estimated.^[61]

While in London Lane also critically appraised medical education, hospitals and prominent surgeons. The following are his observations on the English system for granting diplomas. His clarification of that system is relevant to the debate on examination for the medical degree which so agitated the medical profession in California prior to the enactment of legislation on medical licensure in April 1876 to which we have already referred.^[62]

Lane's lucid explanation of the English system showed that the Europeans had not succeeded, in actual practice, of separating the teaching from the degree-granting function in medical education as was their original objective. Dr. Gibbons, Sr., and other advocates of the English model had in recent years learned by trial and error the impracticality of such a separation.

Also while Dr. Lane was in London, the Court of Examiners of the Royal College of Surgeons of England "deliberately examined him and found him to be fit and capable to exercise the Art and Science of Surgery. " Having so concluded, they admitted Dr. Lane a Member of the Royal College of Surgeons on 29 January 1875, thus entitling him to add the goodly "M. R. C. S., Eng." to his medical credentials.^[63][64]

Early in March 1875, Dr. and Mrs. Lane gladly forsook the grand but gloomy city of London with its smoke, rain and sturdy medical traditions. They crossed the Channel and under the blue sky of la belle France traveled south, by-passing Paris, to take up brief residence in the ancient city of Avignon. From there Dr. Lane addressed a letter on 15 March to the Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal.^[65] His remarks in the letter were devoted to Avignon's Roman, ecclesiastical and literary history, and to the celebrated past and disappointing present of the nearby and once-famous Montpelier Medical School.

The Lanes spent the summer of 1875 in Paris where, after the staid atmosphere of the London scene, Dr. Lane was captivated by the polished oratory of the French professors; the dynamic and cosmopolitan atmosphere of the School of Medicine. There were also the grand old Hotel Dieu, mother of French hospitals and medical schools; and the felt presence in art and history of a glorious medical lineage including such savants as Ambroise Paré (1510-1590), military surgeon of the Renaissance; Laennec (1781-1826) and Trousseau (1801-1867), pioneers in pulmonary diseases; Dupuytren (1777-1835) and Velpeau (1795-1867), clinical surgeons par excellence. Fluent in French, Lane wrote his lecture notes in la langue française

The stay in Paris was a brief six months for his command of the German language and respect for German institutions drew him inexorably to Berlin, the cultural center of Germany and seat of the University of Berlin. There he arrived with his wife in October 1875 to spend the following winter and spring.

It was typical of his tireless commitment to self-improvement that his European Wanderschaft should conclude with a formal doctoral program of study at the Medical School of the Wilhelms Universität of Berlin.

Lane's principle faculty advisor for the program was Professor Bernhard von Langenbeck (1810-1887), the greatest clinical surgeon and teacher of his day in Germany. The Professor taught and operated at the Klinicum Hospital where Lane attended his lectures and observed on his clinical service.^[66]

Lane's other mentor at the University of Berlin was the noted Rudolph Virchow (1821-1902), Professor of Pathology and Director of the Pathological Institute at the Charité Hospital. On 1 November 1875 Lane registered for Professor Virchow's courses which included Demonstrative Pathological Anatomy, Microscopical Pathology and Lectures on General Pathology. In addition to these formal courses, Lane worked every second forenoon in Virchow's Laboratory so that he was in a position to speak knowingly of this remarkable man:^[67][68]

In addition to didactic and clinical studies, Lane's doctoral program included preparation and defense of a dissertation entitled Fractures of the Femur and their Treatment, comprising a review of the literature and a detailed exposition of the mechanism, management and prognosis of the lesion. Upon successful completion of the requisite studies, dissertation and examinations, Dr. Lane was awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine and Surgery, magna cum laude, by Berlin University on 7 March 1876.^[69]

In a statement appended to his Dissertation, Lane graciously thanked Professors Virchow and Langenbeck "for the courtesies received from their hands, and especially for the ideas learned from their teaching."^[70]

In spite of the heavy demands of the doctoral program at the University, Lane did not neglect his rigorous personal agenda of language study, as indicated by the note in his Diary for 26 December 1875:^[71]

Lane's Diary is an impressive example of his remarkable aptitude for language. It includes entries in French, German and Spanish, the last of which he learned during the two years he spent off the coast of Central America while in the U. S. Navy.^[72]

In addition to the primary goal of study and observation at Europe's chief medical centers, Dr. and Mrs. Lane's foreign excursion was also a cultural pilgrimage. Mrs. Lane's delightful diary of their wide-ranging journey, published in a book entitled, Letters of Travel, is a perceptive and lively commentary on the arts, history and contemporary life at sites visited by the Lanes from Scandinavia and St. Petersburg in the north, through Switzerland and Italy to the pyramids of Gizah in the south.

Unfortunately, we have discovered no personal information about the talented Mrs. Lane. Aside from the bare announcement that she was married to Levi Cooper Lane on 16 March 1870, we have so far seen no reference to her except for the following entry in Dr. Lane's Diary on New Year's Eve, 1870: "The year has been one of success in business, in health, and above all in a fortunate marriage." We shall in due course learn more of Mrs. Lane's significant role in support of her husband's lofty objectives, but of her prior life we are to remain woefully uninformed.^[73]

Dr. and Mrs. Lane spent the last days of their Grand Tour in London where he made the following final entry in his Diary:^[74]

We have no further word of Dr. Lane until he appears on the podium at Calvary Church on 2 November 1876 to deliver the Valedictory Address at the commencement Exercises. Thereafter, he was increasingly involved in the affairs of the College.

Before leaving the subject of Dr. Lane's European travels, we should ask how it was financially possible for him to absent himself from practice for a period of two years from mid 1874 to mid 1876. We recall that he entered surgical practice with Elias Cooper in the Spring of 1861 at the age of thirty-three. He had spent the previous year in study abroad and, as a result, probably used up his savings from prior service in the U. S. Navy.

Upon the death of Elias Cooper in October 1861, Dr. Lane inherited his practice which, as we have seen, grossed about $ 8000 per year. Ten years later, in 1871, Lane's meticulous financial records show that he consistently earned more than $ 18,000 annually in gross income. By this time he had acquired considerable real estate - a rancho in Napa Valley, and rental property on Fulsom, Steiner and Washington Streets in San Francisco. He continued to maintain the office and residence on Mission street as Cooper had done, a convenient and economical arrangement since the original Cooper school and Infirmary had been on those premises. Regarding his affairs in general, Lane made the following entry in his Diary on his birthday in 1871:^[75]

Thus, prior to his European sojourn, Lane prospered from a busy medical practice and bought real estate as an investment. Although financial records for the years following his return in 1876 are not as revealing as those he previously kept, his office log books provide ample evidence of a thriving practice during the remaining years of the decade. During that same period we know that he purchased stock, and that he continued to invest in real estate for by the early 80's he had acquired fourteen properties in San Francisco as well as acreage in the Fresno and Los Angeles areas. As further evidence of increasing affluence, Dr. Lane continued to maintain an office at 652 Mission Street, and in 1878 purchased a residence at 2302 Clay Street at the corner of Buchanan where he had office hours every evening at seven thirty.^[76][77][78]

As the decade of the 1880's opened, Dr. Lane, now in his 52nd year, had been engaged in teaching and a lucrative medical practice for twenty years. He and Mrs. Lane had no children and his nightly vigils of study, writing and cultivation of the classics were uninterrupted. A prodigious number of articles, lectures, translations, and chapters of his own masterwork, Surgery of the Head and Neck, flowed from his pen. Meanwhile his financial affairs prospered and his fortune grew apace, as though tended by an unseen hand, and for a purpose that he would yet "be given to see."

1. Henry Gibbons, Sr. , Introductory Lecture, Medical Department of the University of the Pacific, July 5th 1870 (San Francisco: John H. Carmany and Co., 1870), p. 15 Lane Library catalog record
2. Annual Announcement of the Medical College of the Pacific, Session of 1872, p. 13 Lane Library catalog record
3. Annual Announcement of the Medical College of the Pacific, Session of 1872, p. 11 Lane Library catalog record
4. Faculty Minutes for 25 January to 2 March 1872, Minutes of Meetings of Faculty of Medical Department of Pacific, 23 May 1870 to 24 May 1874, Box 1.18, vol. 1, Medical College of the Pacific Medical Department, University College, San Francisco, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record
5. Annual Announcement of the Medical College of the Pacific, Session of 1872, pp. 10-11 Lane Library catalog record
6. Faculty Minutes for 9 July 1870, Minutes of Meetings of Faculty of Medical Department of Pacific, 23 May 1870 to 24 May 1874, Box 1.18, vol. 1, Medical College of the Pacific Medical Department, University College, San Francisco, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record
7. Annual Announcement of the Medical College of the Pacific, Session of 1872, pp. 7-8 Lane Library catalog record
8. Annual Announcement of the Medical College of the Pacific, Session of 1877, p. 7 Lane Library catalog record
9. Annual Announcement of the Medical College of the Pacific, Session of 1882, p. 15 Lane Library catalog record
10. Henry Gibbons, Sr. , "Some Defensive Remarks on the Medical Education and Medical Schools of America, and Particularly California," Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal 20, no. 1 (Jun 1877): 1-9 Lane Library catalog record
11. H. S. Orme , "Report on Medical Education," Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of California, 1877-1878 (Sacramento: H. S. Crocker and Co, 1878), pp. 42-43 Lane Library catalog record
12. Annual Announcement of the Medical College of the Pacific, Session of 1879, pp. 6 and 14 Lane Library catalog record
13. Annual Announcement of the Medical College of the Pacific, Session of 1881, pp. 5-6 Lane Library catalog record
14. Annual Announcements[of the Medical Department of the University of the Pacific, of the Medical College of the Pacific, of the Cooper Medical College], 1859 through 1883 Lane Library catalog record, Lane Library catalog record, Lane Library catalog record,
15. Annual announcement of the Cooper Medical College (for 1884), pages 9-10 Lane Library catalog record
16. Annual Announcement of the Medical College of the Pacific, Session of 1882, pp. 6 and 14 Lane Library catalog record
17. "Tuition, Medical Department University of California," Annual Announcements, Medical Department University of California (1870 and 1878). Personal Communication from Archivist William Roberts, University Archives, University of California, Berkeley, CA
18. Faculty Minutes for 24 July 1872, Minutes of Meetings of Faculty of Medical Department of Pacific, 23 May 1870 to 24 May 1874, Box 1.18, vol. 1, Medical College of the Pacific Medical Department, University College, San Francisco, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford
19. Faculty Minutes for 30 October 1876 and 4 January 1877, Minutes of Meetings of Faculty of Medical Department of Pacific, 6 August 1874 to 22 November 1877, Box 1.18, vol. 2, Medical College of the Pacific Medical Department, University College, San Francisco, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record
20. "Editorial. Our Journal - Two Numbers in One - The New College Building," Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal 25, nos. 6 and 7 (Nov-Dec 1882): 266-267 Lane Library catalog record
21. Record of Students and Instructors, April 1859-1883, Register of Medical Department, University of the Pacific - Box 1.7, Medical Department of the University of the Pacific Collection of publications, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record
22. "Graduates: Medical Department of University of Pacific and University College (Medical College of the Pacific) and Cooper Medical College," Preceding Session of 1886, Cooper Medical College Announcements Lane Library catalog record
23. Henry Gibbons , "Miscellany. Medical College of the Pacific," Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal 23, no. 6 (Nov 1880): 287 Lane Library catalog record
24. Registrar, University of California, Summary of Degrees and Certificates Awarded by the University of California 1864 - 1933-34, (Compiled in 1934), University Archives, University of California, Berkeley, CA
25. Minutes of Meetings of Faculty of Medical Department of Pacific and Medical College of the Pacific, 23 May 1870 to 24 May 1874, Box 1.18, vol. 1, Medical College of the Pacific Medical Department, University College, San Francisco, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record
26. Minutes of Meetings of Faculty of Medical College of the Pacific, 6 Aug 1874 to 22 Nov 1877, Box 1.18, vol. 2, Medical College of the Pacific Medical Department, University College, San Francisco, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record
27. Minutes of Meetings of Faculty of Medical College of the Pacific, 6 Dec 1877 to 9 Nov 1882, Box 1.18, vol. 3, Medical College of the Pacific Medical Department, University College, San Francisco, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record
28. Edward Jackson , "Obituary of Adolph Barkan," in MSS 9 - Control File of Adolph Barkan (1845-1935), Lane Medical Library, Lane Medical Archives
29. J. Marion Read and Mary E. Mathes , History of the San Francisco Medical Society, Vol. 1, 1850-1900 (San Francisco: Published by the San Francisco Medical Society, 1958), pp. 69-70 Lane Library catalog record
30. Henry Gibbons , "Editorial: Death of Dr. J. E. Prevost," Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal 19, no. 5 (Oct 1876): 225 Lane Library catalog record
31. J. Marion Read and Mary E. Mathes , History of the San Francisco Medical Society, Vol. 1, 1850-1900 (San Francisco: Published by San Francisco Medical Society, 1958), pp. 143-150 and pp. 167-169 Lane Library catalog record
32. Faculty Minutes for 13 February 1875, Minutes of Meetings of Faculty of Medical Department of Pacific, 6 August 1874 to 22 November 1877, Box 1.18, vol. 2, Medical College of the Pacific Medical Department, University College, San Francisco, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record
33. "Faculty Rosters for 1883 and 1884," Announcements, Cooper Medical College Lane Library catalog record
34. "Postscript: Our Medical Number," San Francisco News Letter (San Francisco: Office 607-615 Merchant Street) 25, no. 24 (Jul 10, 1875): 1-7
35. J. Marion Read and Mary E. Mathes , History of the San Francisco Medical Society, vol. 1, 1850-1900 (San Francisco: San Francisco Medical Society, 1958), 139-141 Lane Library catalog record
36. Transactions of the Medical Society the State of California, 1874-75 (Sacramento: H. S. Crocker Co., 1875), p. 6
37. John B. Trask and David Wooster , eds., "Medical Register of the State of California," Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal 1, no. 5 (May 1858): 209 Lane Library catalog record
38. Transactions of the Medical Society the State of California, 1875-76 (Sacramento: Sacramento Leader Printing Office, 1876), p. 20
39. Transactions of the Medical Society the State of California, 1876-77 (Sacramento: H. A. Weaver, Printer, 1877), pp. 9-11
40. J. Marion Read and Mary E. Mathes , History of the San Francisco Medical Society, vol. 1, 1850-1900 (San Francisco: San Francisco Medical Society, 1958), 142-143 Lane Library catalog record
41. Henry Gibbons , "Editorial: Death of J. P. Whitney," Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal 23, no. 7 (Dec 1880): 320 Lane Library catalog record
42. "Postscript: Our Medical Number," San Francisco News Letter (San Francisco: Office 607-615 Merchant Street) 25, no. 24 (Jul 10, 1875): 1
43. "Minutes of Fifth Annual Meeting of California State Medical Society, 21-22 April 1875," Transactions of Medical Society of State of California During Years 1874 and 1875 (Sacramento: H. S. Crocker and Co., 1875), p. 15
44. "Minutes of Sixth Annual Meeting of California State Medical Society, 19-20 April 1876," in Transactions of Medical Society of State of California During Years 1875 and 1876 (Sacramento: Sacramento Leader Printing Office, 1876), p. 19
45. Faculty Minutes (Special Meeting) for 25 June 1875, Minutes of Meetings of Faculty of Medical Department of Pacific, 6 August 1874 to 22 November 1877, Box 1.18, vol. 2, Medical College of the Pacific Medical Department, University College, San Francisco, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record
46. Official Register of Physicians and Surgeons in the State of California, Sixth Edition (San Francisco: Revised and Published by the Board, 1893), pp. 17-23 Lane Library catalog record
47. Emmet Rixford , "Obituary of Dr. J. O. Hirschfelder," Box 1.9, Rixford Papers - MSS 8, Lane Medical Library, Lane Medical Archives Lane Library catalog record
48. Record of Students and Instructors, April 1859-1883, Register of Medical Department, University of the Pacific - Box 1.7, Medical Department of the University of the Pacific Collection of publications, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record
49. Official Register of Physicians and Surgeons in the State of California, Sixth Edition (San Francisco: Revised and Published by the Board, 1893), p. 63 Lane Library catalog record
50. Henry Harris , California's Medical Story (San Francisco: Printed by the Grabhorn Press for J. W. Stacey, Inc., 1932), p. 212 Lane Library catalog record
51. Frances T. Gardner , "King Cole of California," Part 2, Annals of Medical History, Third Series, Vol. 2, no. 4 (Jul 1940): 342-343 Lane Library catalog record
52. Constitution and By-Laws of the Alumni Association of the Medical College of the Pacific, vol. 1, item 6, Lane Medical Library Special Collections Lane Library catalog record
53. Henry Gibbons , "Alumni Association of the Medical College of the Pacific," Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal 21, no. 6 (Nov 1878): 288 Lane Library catalog record
54. Levi C. Lane , "Commencement of the Medical College of the Pacific, Nov. 2, 1976," Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal 19, no. 7 (Nov 1876): 264-265 Lane Library catalog record
55. Levi C. Lane , "Address delivered by Dr. L. C. Lane, Professor of Surgery, at the Commencement Exercises of the Medical College of the Pacific, Nov. 2, 1976," Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal 19, no. 7 (Nov 1876): 289-309 Lane Library catalog record
56. Levi C. Lane , "Letter from Professor Lane. Avignon, France, March 15, 1875," Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal 16, no. 12 (May 1875): 589-592 Lane Library catalog record
57. Levi C. Lane , "Medical Men, Hospitals and Schools of Berlin"[Letter from Dr. Lane in Berlin, Prussia, 6 March 1876], Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal 18, no. 11 (April 1876): 514-519 Lane Library catalog record
58. Diaries of L. C. Lane - Boxes 1 and 12, Levi Cooper Lane Personal Papers - MSS 18, Lane Medical Archives
59. Mrs. L. C. Lane , Letters of Travel (San Francisco: A. L. Bancroft and Company, 1886), 140 pp Lane Library catalog record
60. Fielding H. Garrison , An Introduction to the History of Medicine, 4th ed. (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1929), pp. 588-592 Lane Library catalog record
61. Fielding H. Garrison , An Introduction to the History of Medicine, 4th ed. (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1929), pp. 514-515 Lane Library catalog record
62. Levi C. Lane , "Address delivered by Dr. L. C. Lane, Professor of Surgery, at the Commencement Exercises of the Medical College of the Pacific, Nov. 2, 1976," Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal 19, no. 7 (Nov 1876): 293-294 Lane Library catalog record
63. "Editorial citing the London Medical Times," Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal 17, no. 10 (Mar 1875): 507 Lane Library catalog record
64. Enrollment Document, Royal College of Surgeons of England, 29 January 1875 - Map Case, Levi Cooper Lane Papers - MSS 18, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record
65. Levi C. Lane , "Letter from Professor Lane. Avignon, France, March 15, 1875," Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal 16, no. 12 (May 1875): 589-592 Lane Library catalog record
66. Fielding H. Garrison , An Introduction to the History of Medicine, 4th ed. (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1929), p. 496 Lane Library catalog record
67. Fielding H. Garrison , An Introduction to the History of Medicine, 4th ed. (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1929), p. 569 Lane Library catalog record
68. Levi C. Lane , "Medical Men, Hospitals and Schools of Berlin[Letter from Dr. Lane. Berlin, Prussia. March 1876]," Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal 18, no. 11 (Apr 1876): 515-516 Lane Library catalog record
69. Levi C. Lane , "Fractures of the Femur and their Treatment," Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal 18, no. 12 (May 1876): 545-567 Lane Library catalog record
70. Diploma, Doctor of Medicine and Surgery, Berlin University, 7 March 1876 - Map Case, Levi Cooper Lane Papers - MSS 18, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record
71. Notebook: Diary for 30 June 1875 to 6 January 1876 - Box 12.13, Levi Cooper Lane Papers - MSS 18, Lane Medical Archives, StanfordLane Library catalog record
72. Emmet Rixford , "Master Surgeons of America: Levi Cooper Lane," Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics 56, no. 2 (Feb 1933): 246 Lane Library catalog record
73. Entry for 31 December 1870, Notebook: Diary for 1870 - Box 1.14, Levi Cooper Lane Papers - MSS 18, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record
74. Notebook - Box 12.14, Levi Cooper Lane Papers - MSS 18, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record
75. Entry for 9 May 1871, Notebook: Diary for 1871 - Box 1.17, Levi Cooper Lane Papers - MSS 18, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record
76. Record Books of Dr. Lane - Boxes 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3, Levi Cooper Lane Papers - MSS 18, Lane Medical Archives Lane Library catalog record
77. Placard announcing location of Dr. Lane's office and residence - Map Case, Levi Cooper Lane Papers - MSS 18, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record
78. File on Dr. Lane's Bills and Taxes, 1880-1884, Cooper Medical College Financial Documents - Box 4.20, Cooper Medical College Collection of publications, Lane Medical Archives, Stanford Lane Library catalog record